Postbiota

Weight-management

Annemarie Polderdijk — Sat, 03 Oct 2026 17:29:57 +0000

POSTBIOTA INSIGHTS METABOLISM

Heavyweight helpers: pro- and postbiotics in weight management

Probiotics and postbiotics are known for gut health, but they also play a role in how the body handles fat, appetite and energy.

Postbiota Science team · 5 min read

KEY HIGHLIGHTS

Weight management. Probiotics and postbiotics both play a role in managing weight by regulating fat storage.

SCFAs and fat storage. Short-chain fatty acids help the body use fat for energy rather than storing it, while reducing fat production and increasing fat breakdown.

Gut balance. Bacteria like Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifidobacterium longum help balance the gut microbiome, reducing bacteria linked to obesity.

Appetite & metabolism. SCFAs influence hormones such as leptin and GLP-1 and help regulate the breakdown of fat and sugar.

Introduction

Probiotics and postbiotics are well known for their role in gut health, but they also play a significant role in weight management. In this article, we look at how these bacteria and their postbiotics throw their weight around when it comes to keeping the body in balance.

Fat storage and probiotic protection

Postbiotics, especially short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), have a remarkable ability to influence how the body handles fat¹. SCFAs can help shift the body’s focus from storing fat to burning it for energy. They do this by signalling the liver and fat cells to use fat as fuel rather than store it, which can reduce overall fat storage.

SCFAs also help curb fat production. They lower the activity of genes responsible for fat synthesis and increase the activity of genes that break down and burn fat^2,3. In essence, SCFAs support the removal of excess fat rather than new fat build-up.

Probiotics such as Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bifidobacterium longum and Lactobacillus plantarum further support weight management by promoting a healthier gut microbiome. They help reduce bacteria linked to obesity while increasing bacteria that aid digestion and metabolism. Research shows that probiotics can counteract weight gain caused by high-fat, high-sugar diets by restoring the balance of bacteria in the gut, which can help prevent excess fat accumulation⁴.

A meta-analysis that reviewed 200 trials with over 12,600 participants found that taking probiotics led to significant improvements in weight and body composition^6,8.

Appetite regulation

Beyond fat storage, SCFAs also play a role in regulating appetite^2,3. They affect key hormones involved in hunger and metabolism, such as leptin and GLP-1. Leptin signals fullness, reducing the desire to overeat, while GLP-1 helps regulate blood sugar and also reduces appetite. By promoting these hormones, SCFAs can support more controlled eating habits.

Metabolism

SCFAs, particularly acetate, propionate and butyrate, play a valuable role in regulating the body’s energy balance^5,7,9. They serve as fuel for energy production and influence processes such as fat synthesis, glucose production and the breakdown of sugars. In doing so, they help regulate how the body uses and stores energy.

Summary

Probiotics and postbiotics offer a one-two punch in weight management. They help regulate fat storage and metabolism, support appetite control and improve gut health. By balancing the bacteria in the gut, these compounds help the body regulate energy and maintain a healthy weight.

Important note

This article summarises scientific literature for professional readers. It is not a health claim for any product and is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure or prevent any disease.

IN SHORT

01 SCFAs shift the balance from fat storage to fat use.

02 They influence satiety hormones such as leptin and GLP-1.

03 Human meta-analyses support probiotic effects on body composition.

ABOUT THE EVIDENCE

The mechanistic findings on fat storage (references 1 to 4) come from studies in mice and pigs. Human evidence cited here concerns probiotic supplementation, summarised in meta-analyses.

Postbiotics: nourish the skin from within

References

1. Den Besten, G., Bleeker, A., Gerding, A., et al. (2015). Short-Chain Fatty Acids Protect Against High-Fat Diet–Induced Obesity via a PPARγ-Dependent Switch From Lipogenesis to Fat Oxidation. Diabetes 64, 2398–2408. https://doi.org/10.2337/DB14-1213

2. Jiao, A., Yu, B., He, J., et al. (2020). Short chain fatty acids could prevent fat deposition in pigs via regulating related hormones and genes. Food Funct 11, 1845–1855. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9FO02585E

3. Jiao, A.R., Diao, H., Yu, B., et al. (2018). Oral administration of short chain fatty acids could attenuate fat deposition of pigs. PLoS One 13. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0196867

4. Kong, C., Gao, R., Yan, X., Huang, L., and Qin, H. (2019). Probiotics improve gut microbiota dysbiosis in obese mice fed a high-fat or high-sucrose diet. Nutrition 60, 175–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.NUT.2018.10.002

5. He, J., Zhang, P., Shen, L., et al. (2020). Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Their Association with Signalling Pathways in Inflammation, Glucose and Lipid Metabolism. Int J Mol Sci 21, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3390/IJMS21176356

6. Saadati, S., Naseri, K., Asbaghi, O., et al. (2023). Beneficial effects of the probiotics and synbiotics supplementation on anthropometric indices and body composition in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Obesity Reviews 25. https://doi.org/10.1111/OBR.13667

7. Schönfeld, P., and Wojtczak, L. (2016). Short- and medium-chain fatty acids in energy metabolism: the cellular perspective. J Lipid Res 57, 943–954. https://doi.org/10.1194/JLR.R067629

8. Borgeraas, H., Johnson, L.K., Skattebu, J., Hertel, J.K., and Hjelmesæth, J. (2018). Effects of probiotics on body weight, body mass index, fat mass and fat percentage in subjects with overweight or obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Obesity Reviews 19, 219–232. https://doi.org/10.1111/OBR.12626

9. Hu, J., Lin, S., Zheng, B., and Cheung, P.C.K. (2018). Short-chain fatty acids in control of energy metabolism. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 58, 1243–1249. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2016.1245650

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Our study

Annemarie Polderdijk — Sat, 03 Oct 2026 15:47:49 +0000

OUR RESEARCH HUMAN STUDY

Significant shift in microbiome composition within 4 months

~ 3x more probiotics and 50% more postbiotics¹

Postbiota Science team

Study objective

This study explored how daily intake of our fermented liquid influences gut microbiome composition over time.

Study design

21 participants
Daily intake of our fermented liquid (30 ml per day)
Measurement at baseline and after 4 months
Faecal microbiome analysis

Methodology

DNA-based 16S rRNA gene sequencing²
Assessment of microbiome composition and relative bacterial abundance
Statistical comparison over time³

Example of gut profile before and after

Relative abundance per genus before intake, after 1 month and after 4 months.

Results & conclusion

Daily intake of our fermented liquid was associated with a significant shift in microbiome composition within 4 months.

In particular, a strong increase in key probiotic bacteria and postbiotic-producing bacterial activity was observed.

Figure 1 · Increase in probiotics

Lactobacillus, a key probiotic, increased to 295% after 4 months of daily intake (p<0.05). The before intake level was set at 100%, and all changes are shown relative to this.

Figure 2 · Increase in postbiotics

SCFA-producing bacteria increased to 153% after 4 months (p<0.05). The before intake level was set at 100%, and all changes are shown relative to this.

STUDY AT A GLANCE

21 participants

30 ml fermented liquid per day

4 months baseline-to-follow-up period

METHOD

Faecal microbiome analysis using DNA-based 16S rRNA gene sequencing, with assessment of microbiome composition and relative bacterial abundance.

Fuel your performance with postbiotics

Notes

1. Postbiotics refer to metabolites (e.g. SCFAs) produced by gut bacteria. The increase reflects higher levels of postbiotic-producing bacteria.

2. DNA-based 16S rRNA gene sequencing was used to profile microbial communities.

3. Statistical comparison used the Kruskal–Wallis test with Tukey–Kramer post-hoc correction for multiple comparisons.

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Health and Nutrition

Annemarie Polderdijk — Sat, 03 Oct 2026 15:41:44 +0000

LITERATURE SUMMARY HUMAN AND ANIMAL NUTRITION

Why are postbiotics attracting growing attention across the health and nutrition sector?

A 2024 review in Cell Metabolism makes the case that the bioactive compounds produced by microorganisms deserve the scientific spotlight.

Postbiota Science team · 6 min read

The Cell Metabolism review “Unlocking the power of postbiotics” highlights a significant shift in microbiome science. Researchers increasingly recognise that many of the health effects historically attributed to probiotics may be mediated by the bioactive compounds they produce, now broadly referred to as postbiotics.

From living bacteria to what they leave behind

Zhao and colleagues describe postbiotics as preparations of inanimate microorganisms or their components. The review brings together work on bacteria and yeasts and is candid about a gap in the field: much of what is known about specific postbiotic molecules was learned in probiotic studies, and several of the proposed pathways remain speculative. The authors write the review explicitly to redirect research attention toward the postbiotic fraction itself.

Four mechanisms in focus

Across the studies reviewed, four modes of action come up repeatedly.

Antioxidant activity — Reducing oxidative stress in cells and tissues.

Immune regulation — Modulating innate and adaptive immune responses.

Microbiota modulation — Shaping the composition of the resident gut community.

Barrier function — Supporting epithelial tight junctions in the gut lining.

Why stability changes the conversation

The effects described resemble those of probiotics. What sets postbiotics apart, according to the authors, is stability and safety. A postbiotic does not need to stay alive, so it is not exposed to the viability losses that live cultures face during processing, heat treatment and storage.

For formulators this is a practical point, not an abstract one. It opens up shelf-stable formats, ambient distribution and applications such as UHT beverages, where live cultures struggle. It also changes the quality question: the relevant measure becomes retention of functional markers, not colony counts.

Humans and animals in one framework

The review treats human and animal nutrition side by side. In animal science it covers applications such as yeast fermentation products in dairy cattle, with reported effects on milk production and feed efficiency. The authors also position postbiotics as part of the effort to reduce antibiotic use in livestock farming, while supporting health and productivity.

What the review does not settle

Much of the underlying evidence comes from cell and animal models. The authors note that laboratory conditions cannot fully replicate the changing environment of the gut, and that the function of a postbiotic depends heavily on the source organism and the way it is produced. Two postbiotic ingredients are therefore not interchangeable, and each needs to be characterised on its own terms.

Our reading

This review confirms the direction we have worked in for over twenty years: defined fermentation, a stable finished ingredient and honest characterisation. It also sets the standard we hold ourselves to. Category-level evidence does not transfer automatically to any single product, including ours. That is why we publish our own data separately, with its design and limits stated.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

01 Research attention is moving from live microbes to their bioactive products.

02 Stability and safety are the main practical advantages over probiotics.

03 Function depends on source organism and process, so each ingredient needs its own data.

SOURCE

Zhao X, Liu S, Li S, et al. Unlocking the power of postbiotics: a revolutionary approach to nutrition for humans and animals. Cell Metabolism. 2024;36(4):725–744.

DOI 10.1016/j.cmet.2024.03.004 · Open access

Fuel your performance with postbiotics

Original source

Zhao X, Liu S, Li S, et al. Unlocking the power of postbiotics: a revolutionary approach to nutrition for humans and animals. Cell Metabolism. 2024;36(4):725–744.

DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2024.03.004 · Open access

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Fuel your performance

Annemarie Polderdijk — Sat, 03 Oct 2026 15:14:48 +0000

POSTBIOTA INSIGHTS ENERGY & GUT FUNCTION

Fuel your performance with postbiotics

The intestines digest food to supply energy to the rest of the body. Postbiotics, in turn, help fuel the intestines themselves.

Postbiota Science team · 3 min read

We all know our intestines digest food to provide energy, vitamins and nutrients to the rest of the body. Less well known is that postbiotics help fuel the intestines themselves.

Postbiotics like butyrate are not a nice-to-have for the gut. They are part of the body’s energy engine: butyrate provides up to 70% of the energy required by colon cells (Pryde et al., 2002). This source of energy plays an important role in keeping the body running efficiently.

It does not stop there. Postbiotics also support gut motility (Cherbut et al., 1997; Martin-Gallausiaux et al., 2021), helping nutrients to be absorbed while waste moves through smoothly. Because postbiotics enhance gut barrier function (Martin-Gallausiaux et al., 2021; Van Hook, 2015), they help the body absorb the essentials while keeping harmful invaders out.

For people committed to high performance, postbiotics can also modulate inflammation (Meijer et al., 2010; Siddiqui & Cresci, 2021), reducing stress on the gut. A healthy gut is a critical foundation for a well-functioning immune system. It is not only about digestion; it is about fuelling performance in every area of life.

Take care of your gut, and your gut will take care of you.

This article summarises scientific literature for professional readers. It is not a health claim for any product and is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure or prevent any disease.

IN SHORT

01 Butyrate supplies up to 70% of colon cell energy.

02 Postbiotics support motility and barrier function.

03 They help modulate gut inflammation.

ABOUT THE EVIDENCE

The figures and mechanisms cited come from microbiology and review literature on SCFAs in general, not from studies of a specific ingredient.

Postbiotics: nourish the skin from within

References

1 Cherbut, C., Aubé, A. C., Blottière, H. M., & Galmiche, J. P. (1997). Effects of Short-Chain Fatty Acids on Gastrointestinal Motility. Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology, 32(222), 58–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/00365521.1997.11720720

2 Martin-Gallausiaux, C., Marinelli, L., Blottière, H. M., Larraufie, P., & Lapaque, N. (2021). SCFA: mechanisms and functional importance in the gut. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 80(1), 37–49. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0029665120006916

3 Meijer, K., De Vos, P., & Priebe, M. G. (2010). Butyrate and other short-chain fatty acids as modulators of immunity: What relevance for health? Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care, 13(6), 715–721. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0B013E32833EEBE5

4 Pryde, S. E., Duncan, S. H., Hold, G. L., Stewart, C. S., & Flint, H. J. (2002). The microbiology of butyrate formation in the human colon. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 217(2), 133–139. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1574-6968.2002.TB11467.X

5 Siddiqui, M. T., & Cresci, G. A. M. (2021). The Immunomodulatory Functions of Butyrate. Journal of Inflammation Research, 14, 6025–6041. https://doi.org/10.2147/JIR.S300989

6 Van Hook, A. M. (2015). Butyrate benefits the intestinal barrier. Science Signaling, 8(378). https://doi.org/10.1126/SCISIGNAL.AAC6198

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Postbiotics: nourish the skin from within

Annemarie Polderdijk — Sat, 03 Oct 2026 14:27:28 +0000

POSTBIOTA INSIGHTS SKIN

Postbiotics: nourish the skin from within

The gut-skin axis connects what happens in the gut with how the skin looks and behaves. Here we explore four ways postbiotics have been linked to skin health.

Postbiota Science team · 7 min read

KEY HIGHLIGHTS

Supports a healthy skin microbiome. Postbiotics help maintain a balanced skin microbiome, which may play a role in supporting overall skin health.

Promotes hydration. Postbiotics can help improve skin moisturisation, elasticity, and the appearance of fine lines and pores.

Helps manage skin irritation. Postbiotics may help soothe irritation and support the skin’s natural healing processes.

Provides antioxidant support. Postbiotics may help protect the skin from environmental stressors, such as free radicals and UV exposure, which contribute to the appearance of ageing.

Introduction

Our skin is not only affected by what we put on it, but also by what is happening inside our bodies, particularly in our gut. This connection between gut health and skin appearance is known as the gut-skin axis¹. Emerging research has shown that a healthy gut microbiome can have a positive impact on our skin. Beneficial bacteria in the microbiome, including those used as probiotics, produce so-called postbiotics: bioactive compounds known for their health effects. Postbiotics have been linked to a range of benefits for the skin, making them relevant to skincare that works from the inside out. In this article, we explore four of them.

1. Balancing the skin microbiome

The skin is the largest organ of our body, and it has its own microbiome. Skin microbiota contains over 800 diverse types of microbes², and a single square centimetre of human skin can contain up to one billion microorganisms³. Postbiotics can promote the growth of beneficial bacteria while inhibiting harmful ones, maintaining a balanced skin microbiome⁴˒⁵. This balance is crucial for preventing skin infections and maintaining overall skin health. Imbalance of the skin microbiome, known as dysbiosis, has been associated with several skin conditions such as eczema and psoriasis⁶. By supporting a balanced microbiome, postbiotics contribute to resilient and healthy skin.

2. Boosting skin hydration

Healthy skin hydration is essential for a smooth appearance and for protection against irritation. Studies have shown that postbiotics from S. thermophilus, L. casei and L. rhamnosus can help increase skin moisturisation⁷˒⁸ and promote better elasticity⁷. These postbiotics have also been linked to a reduced appearance of wrinkles and smaller pore size⁷. Postbiotics from B. longum are known to strengthen the skin barrier, while also decreasing skin sensitivity and roughness⁹. Higher concentrations of propionate, another postbiotic, have been found in people with well-hydrated skin, suggesting that maintaining propionate levels could support moisturised, healthy skin.

3. Calming the skin: inflammation and recovery

Skin conditions like eczema, acne and psoriasis often come with inflammation, which can cause redness, irritation and discomfort. Postbiotics can help modulate inflammation in the body¹⁰–¹⁵. For example, postbiotics from L. rhamnosus have been shown to decrease redness of the skin⁸. Postbiotics like peptidoglycans and exopolysaccharides play a role in supporting wound healing⁴, helping the skin recover. In the case of acne, pyruvic acid, a specific postbiotic, has been shown to reduce skin greasiness when applied as a peel¹⁶.

4. Antioxidant protection: shielding skin from damage

Our skin is constantly exposed to environmental toxins, UV rays and free radicals that can break down collagen, a key protein that keeps skin firm and elastic. Reduced collagen leads to signs of ageing such as wrinkles and rough skin texture. Some postbiotics provide antioxidant protection, helping to shield the skin from this damage¹⁷. Postbiotics from lactic acid bacteria fermentation in kimchi have been shown to block enzymes that break down collagen¹⁸. Glycolic acid, another postbiotic, boosts collagen production and helps repair sun-damaged skin¹⁹. It also improves skin texture and reduces signs of hyperpigmentation¹⁹ and ageing, such as wrinkles and roughness²⁰, and has been reported to help with acne²¹. Finally, butyric acid applied to the skin reduced inflammation caused by UV radiation²².

Summary

Postbiotics offer several potential benefits for skin health: supporting the skin barrier, modulating inflammation and providing antioxidant protection. They can help promote a balanced skin microbiome, maintain hydration, soothe irritation and protect the skin from environmental stressors, contributing to healthier, more resilient skin from within.

This article summarises scientific literature for professional readers. It is not a health claim for any product and is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure or prevent any disease.

IN SHORT

01 The gut-skin axis links gut health to skin appearance.

02 Postbiotics are studied for microbiome balance, hydration, calming and antioxidant effects.

03 Much of the skin evidence comes from topical application.

ABOUT THE EVIDENCE

Several of the studies cited tested postbiotics applied to the skin (lotions, peels), not taken orally. Effects from topical use cannot be assumed for oral intake.

Fuel your performance with postbiotics

References

1 Pessemier, B. De, Grine, L., Debaere, M., Maes, A., Paetzold, B., and Callewaert, C. (2021). Gut–Skin Axis: Current Knowledge of the Interrelationship between Microbial Dysbiosis and Skin Conditions. Microorganisms 9, 353. https://doi.org/10.3390/MICROORGANISMS9020353

2 Timm, C.M., Loomis, K., Stone, W., et al. (2020). Isolation and characterization of diverse microbial representatives from the human skin microbiome. Microbiome 8. https://doi.org/10.1186/S40168-020-00831-Y

3 Cooper, A.J., Weyrich, L.S., Dixit, S., and Farrer, A.G. (2015). The skin microbiome: Associations between altered microbial communities and disease. Australasian Journal of Dermatology 56, 268–274. https://doi.org/10.1111/AJD.12253

4 Rawal, S., and Ali, S.A. (2023). Probiotics and postbiotics play a role in maintaining dermal health. Food Funct 14, 3966–3981. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3FO00152K

5 De Almeida, C.V., Antiga, E., and Lulli, M. (2023). Oral and Topical Probiotics and Postbiotics in Skincare and Dermatological Therapy: A Concise Review. Microorganisms 11, 1420. https://doi.org/10.3390/MICROORGANISMS11061420

6 Lee, H.J., and Kim, M. (2022). Skin Barrier Function and the Microbiome. Int J Mol Sci 23, 13071. https://doi.org/10.3390/IJMS232113071

7 Catic, T., Pehlivanovic, B., Pljakic, N., and Balicevac, A. (2022). The Moisturizing Efficacy of a Proprietary Dermo-Cosmetic Product (CLS02021) Versus Placebo in a 4-week Application Period. https://doi.org/10.5455/medarh.2022.76.108-114

8 Cui, H., Feng, C., Zhang, T., et al. (2023). Effects of a lotion containing probiotic ferment lysate as the main functional ingredient on enhancing skin barrier: a randomized, self-control study. Scientific Reports 13, 16879. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-43336-y

9 Guéniche, A., Bastien, P., Ovigne, J.M., et al. (2010). Bifidobacterium longum lysate, a new ingredient for reactive skin. Exp Dermatol 19, e1–e8. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1600-0625.2009.00932.X

10 He, J., Zhang, P., Shen, L., et al. (2020). Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Their Association with Signalling Pathways in Inflammation, Glucose and Lipid Metabolism. Int J Mol Sci 21, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3390/IJMS21176356

11 Acevedo-Román, A., Pagán-Zayas, N., Velázquez-Rivera, L.I., et al. (2024). Insights into Gut Dysbiosis: Inflammatory Diseases, Obesity, and Restoration Approaches. Int J Mol Sci 25, 9715. https://doi.org/10.3390/IJMS25179715

12 Rocha-Ramírez, L.M., Pérez-Solano, R.A., Castañón-Alonso, S.L., et al. (2017). Probiotic Lactobacillus Strains Stimulate the Inflammatory Response and Activate Human Macrophages. J Immunol Res 2017. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/4607491

13 Baglama, Š.Š., and Trčko, K. (2022). Skin and gut microbiota dysbiosis in autoimmune and inflammatory skin diseases. Acta Dermatovenerol Alp Pannonica Adriat 31, 105–109. https://doi.org/10.15570/ACTAAPA.2022.16

14 Siddiqui, M.T., and Cresci, G.A.M. (2021). The Immunomodulatory Functions of Butyrate. J Inflamm Res 14, 6025–6041. https://doi.org/10.2147/JIR.S300989

15 Meijer, K., De Vos, P., and Priebe, M.G. (2010). Butyrate and other short-chain fatty acids as modulators of immunity: What relevance for health? Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 13, 715–721. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0B013E32833EEBE5

16 Chilicka, K., Rogowska, A.M., Szyguła, R., et al. (2020). A comparison of the effectiveness of azelaic and pyruvic acid peels in the treatment of female adult acne: a randomized controlled trial. Scientific Reports 10, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-69530-w

17 Duarte, M., Carvalho, M.J., de Carvalho, N.M., et al. (2023). Skincare potential of a sustainable postbiotic extract produced through sugarcane straw fermentation by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. BioFactors 49, 1038–1060. https://doi.org/10.1002/BIOF.1975

18 Lee, Y.S., Lee, S.J., Jang, W.J., and Lee, E.W. (2024). Protective Effects of the Postbiotic Levilactobacillus brevis BK3 against H2O2-Induced Oxidative Damage in Skin Cells. J Microbiol Biotechnol 34, 1401–1409. https://doi.org/10.4014/JMB.2403.03010

19 Bahar Houshmand, E., and Bahar Houshmand, C. (2021). Effect of glycolic acid, phytic acid, soothing complex containing Emulsion on Hyperpigmentation and skin luminosity: A clinical evaluation. J Cosmet Dermatol 20, 776–780. https://doi.org/10.1111/JOCD.13950

20 DiNardo, J.C., Grove, G.L., and Moy, L.S. (1996). Clinical and histological effects of glycolic acid at different concentrations and pH levels. Dermatologic Surgery 22, 421–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1524-4725.1996.TB00341.X

21 Wang, C.M., Huang, C.L.I., Sindy Hu, C.T., and Chan, H.L. (1997). The effect of glycolic acid on the treatment of acne in Asian skin. Dermatologic Surgery 23, 23–29. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1524-4725.1997.TB00003.X

22 Keshari, S., Balasubramaniam, A., Myagmardoloonjin, B., et al. (2019). Butyric Acid from Probiotic Staphylococcus epidermidis in the Skin Microbiome Down-Regulates the Ultraviolet-Induced Pro-Inflammatory IL-6 Cytokine via Short-Chain Fatty Acid Receptor. Int J Mol Sci 20, 4477. https://doi.org/10.3390/IJMS20184477

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